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How I Prompted This Hard Sci-Fi Story with ChatGPT 4.5

17/9/2025

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One night I was experimenting with ChatGPT to see if I could prompt a hard sci-fi short story that was constrained in a similar manner to Alastair Reynold’s ‘Revelation Space’ Universe. That means no FTL (Faster Than Light) travel, decades-long journeys, and scientific details that would hold up under scrutiny. I used GPT-4.5 for this task and started the process with ChatGPT’s deep research feature on nearby stars, exoplanets, and other scientific details for the story.

My Approach

  • Constraints First: I told the model to keep it hard science (real exoplanets, real stars, and relativistic flight only), include a shipboard AI that plays a key role throughout the story, and structure the narrative so it includes three mini-chapters (Earth Departure → Proxima Centauri → Next Best Star System).
  • Deep Research: I utilized deep research to gather and evaluate scientific facts for the story. Exoplanets featured include:
    • Proxima b (~1.07 M⊕, ~0.048–0.05 AU, ~11.2-day orbit, likely tidally locked; harsh flare environment).
    • Ross 128 b (~1.3–1.4 M⊕, ~0.049 AU, ~9.9-day orbit) orbiting a quieter red dwarf—better odds for a stable atmosphere and retained biosignatures.
  • Realistic First Contact: I found the first draft of Chapter 3 very unrealistic as the AI was able to instantly act as a translator for the extraterrestrials, so I prompted ChatGPT to revise Chapter 3 so the crew and AI had to gather a real corpus of signals and behaviours before meaning emerged. On the cloud-shrouded world (permanent overcast), “never seeing the stars” became both biologically and culturally coherent.

​Why Use An LLM For Hard Sci-Fi?

​GPT-4.5 handled style and cohesion while I provided the outline, anchored the physics, and directed the story. The model synthesized tone, pacing, and scene transitions, while deep research grounded the numbers, orbits, stellar behaviour, and environments. That split kept the story tight and credible.

Pattern Recognition, Language, And New Environments

The translation arc I wanted in the story mirrors how real understanding grows:
  • Data Before Meaning: You don’t decode a language from one utterance; you need hours of audio, context, and interaction.
  • Multimodal Grounding: Sound plus behaviour plus setting beats raw text or speech alone.
  • Probabilities, Not Certainties: Hypotheses get proposed, tested, and revised—exactly how good science (and careful field linguistics) works.

AI Is Already Accelerating Science

This workflow reflects where AI is useful today:
  • Astronomy: Classifying light curves, denoising spectra, flagging exoplanet candidates, modeling stellar flares.
  • Planetary Science: Terrain mapping, autonomous navigation, onboard triage for what to study next.
  • Signal Analysis/SETI-Adjacent: Anomaly detection and structured-signal characterization.

​Read The Story

​If you’d like to see the finished product of this experiment, you can read the full three-chapter short story here:
Interstellar Odyssey (PDF)
File Size: 219 kb
File Type: pdf
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The story follows humanity’s first interstellar voyage—beginning with Earth’s departure, continuing through the Proxima Centauri system, and culminating in first contact on Ross 128 b.
Picture
​​Image generated with ChatGPT. 

​Takeaways

If you want to prompt great stories with ChatGPT:
  • Start with clear constraints.
  • Utilize verified data. 
  • Let the model handle cohesion and voice. 
  • Keep a human in the loop for truth and taste. 
The result is fiction that reads smoothly but leans on real numbers—a voyage carried by patience, pattern recognition, and the quiet partnership between humans and their machines.
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Spruce Woods Star Party 2025: Clouds, Stars, and Community

3/9/2025

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From Friday, August 22nd to Sunday, August 24th, I joined fellow Royal Astronomical Society of Canada (RASC) Winnipeg Centre members for our annual Spruce Woods Star Party. The weather wasn’t always in our favour, but the weekend still had plenty of memorable moments, camaraderie, and glimpses of the night sky that remind me why I love star parties so much.
Picture
Star Party Community Tent

Friday, August 22nd – Arrival and Clouds

​I arrived just over a half hour after sunset with just enough light left to set up the tent and inflate the air mattress (non-red lights are banned at night at star parties to protect night vision). The difference between Spruce Woods and city skies was immediately apparent when the clouds mostly cleared after camp setup was complete. The stars and constellations popped against the darker backdrop, far beyond what I normally see in Winnipeg or even at Bird’s Hill Provincial Park, which is still very much affected by light pollution from nearby Winnipeg.
​But as quickly as the stars appeared, the clouds rolled in and stayed for the rest of the night. I woke up a couple times hoping for a clearing, but clear skies never came. The thick clouds stuck through the morning, with the first hint of sunlight breaking through around 9:30-10am the next day.
At least I had something to keep me engaged through the long, cloudy night: A lineup of excellent ‘Astrum Space’ astronomy podcasts (Apple Podcasts, YouTube Catalogue), always a great companion when the sky doesn’t cooperate (and before falling asleep on typical nights).
Star Party Campsite

Saturday, August 23rd – Activities, Tours, and Observing

​The morning began with optimism. I set up my SeeStar S50 to observe the sun peeking through a patch of sky—only for the clouds to move back in almost immediately. I packed it away and switched gears for a refreshing bike ride on campground trails. Kiche Manitou Campground has an amazing collection of paths connecting virtually all areas of the campground. Cycling or hiking the trails is the best way to get around. 
Campground Trails
​Later came the swap meet, always a highlight. This year it was hosted by one of our members dressed as a pirate, making this amateur astronomer buy-and-sell even more fun.
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Swap Meet Table
Picture
Swap Meet Pirate
​Sadly, I missed this year’s telescope tour, but I believe it was brief. Coming back from the showers around 7:20pm, I overheard someone loudly say, “And that concludes the telescope tour”, or something to that effect. If true, that’s far shorter than the 1–2 hours of previous years. However it makes sense as not many scopes were set up due to the poor sky conditions. 
​Later that night we got lucky, with the clouds breaking a bit for Gerry’s famous binocular tour. His tours are always a favourite of mine–packed with inspiration, facts, and cosmic perspective. He pointed out where Voyager 1 is located in our sky (the constellation Ophiuchus) and how far away it is (around one light-day from Earth). It’s one of the fastest human-made objects, yet would take thousands of years to reach Proxima Centauri (and that’s only if it were headed that way). He also showed how clusters of stars can appear spread across the sky because our solar system is drifting through them. We explored constellations and asterisms like Sagitta and the Coathanger within the Summer Triangle. That was just a taste of Gerry’s amazing tour. You’ll have to attend yourself for the full experience. ;)
​I’m seriously considering purchasing image-stabilized binoculars for next year (and to enhance my astronomy gear kit). I held back from purchasing them this time, but tours like Gerry’s really highlight their value. Too bad my not purchasing those binoculars didn’t help us get better weather (I’m referencing that amateur astronomer superstition/joke: Buy a new telescope, pair of binoculars, or desirable new astronomy gear, and the weather is guaranteed to turn on you—sometimes for quite a while). 
​After the tour, I turned to my own gear. With my Celestron Regal M2 100mm ED spotting scope, I revisited some favourites: The Double Cluster in Perseus, the shimmering Pleiades, and the always-magnificent Saturn with its iconic rings.
My SeeStar S50 also came back out, this time targeting deep-sky objects. I managed to image:
  • M103 (Open Cluster)
  • NGC 6888 (Crescent Nebula)
  • SH 2-142 (Wizard Nebula)
  • IC 63 (Ghost of Cassiopeia)
  • NGC 281 (Pacman Nebula)
  • NGC 6946 (Fireworks Galaxy)
SeeStar's Object Information & My Images (Saturday Night/Sunday Morning)
​One of the SeeStar’s best qualities is that I can monitor it remotely from inside my tent—perfect for nights like this when the chill sinks in. I drifted in and out of sleep, waking up to switch targets before crawling back into my sleeping bag.
​By 4 am, I stepped outside one last time to pack everything up. Dew was everywhere (hooray for the anti-dew feature on my SeeStar S50 (Note: It runs the battery down faster)), but seeing Orion rising in the east alongside Taurus the Bull and the Pleiades, then turning to see the rest of the night sky, just filled me with awe and delight.

Sunday, August 24th – Breakfast, Raffle, and Farewell

​Sunday morning brought one of the most beloved traditions of the Star Party: The community breakfast. Plates were piled with sausages, pancakes, eggs, fruit, and hash browns (the latter disappearing especially quickly).
Picture
Members hard at work cooking breakfast. 
​Then came the raffle. I walked away with a new toque and a screen/lens cleaning kit—useful prizes for future observing sessions and of particular note after the cold and dew this weekend. Afterward, we posed for a group photograph before packing up camp and heading back to the city.

​Even with the clouds, Spruce Woods was awesome. I’m already counting the days until next year’s Spruce Woods Star Party. With a little luck, the skies will open wider, the nights will last longer, and I’ll have my new image-stabilized binoculars in hand.
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A Universe in Your Browser

6/8/2025

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On June 23, 2025, the Vera C. Rubin Observatory unveiled its first celestial masterpiece—an ultra-wide-field image capturing roughly 10 million galaxies in the southern region of the Virgo Cluster. Located about 55 million light-years away, the Virgo Cluster is the largest collection of galaxies relative to our own Milky Way.

What You're Seeing

A mesmerizing blend of blue‑to‑red stars from our own galaxy and spiral, elliptical, and merging galaxies both near and far (many redshifted and incredibly distant).
You’ll also be able to see streaks from asteroids crossing the frame when toggling “with asteroids” in Skyviewer’s display settings. 
​The image was built from 1,185 exposures over seven nights, covering ~25 square degrees of sky. For context, each individual exposure by the Rubin Observatory spans 10 square degrees (roughly the area of 45 full moons).

Explore It Yourself

Head over to the Skyviewer Explorer to pan, zoom, and lose yourself in this cosmic tapestry.
​I highly recommend the guided tour titled Rubin’s Cosmic Treasure Chest, which highlights major objects like Messier 49, Messier 61, NGC 4334, NGC 4343, galaxy mergers, and more.

Why It Matters

This is just a first glimpse of the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST). The LSST is a decade-long mission in which the Rubin Observatory will capture hundreds of images each night of the Southern Hemisphere sky. Over ten years, Rubin will spot supernovae, track asteroids, inventory our Solar System, map the Milky Way, and deepen our understanding of dark matter and dark energy.

Go get lost among the galaxies. 


Picture
This image captures a small slice of the Virgo Cluster as seen by the NSF/DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory, revealing a rich mix of spiral galaxies, merging systems, distant galaxy groups, stars from our Milky Way, and more.

Sources

  • NOIRLab – 'The Cosmic Treasure Chest' Image
    • https://noirlab.edu/public/images/noirlab2521a/
  • Rubin Observatory – Official Site
    • https://rubinobservatory.org/
  • Skyviewer Explorer
    • https://skyviewer.app/explorer
  • Rubin’s Cosmic Treasure Chest – Interactive Tour
    • https://skyviewer.app/tours/cosmic-treasure-chest
  • How Rubin Works: Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST)
    • https://rubinobservatory.org/explore/how-rubin-works/lsst
  • Rubin Observatory Gallery – 'Cosmic Abundance' Image
    • https://rubinobservatory.org/gallery/collections/main-gallery/32ejonfcf955v6luvhdvbd746c
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Know Your Resources: Heavens-Above

23/7/2025

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Have you ever spotted a bright “star” gliding across the night sky, or wondered when the next eclipse or satellite pass will occur? 

One great resource I'd like to share is Heavens-Above, a free, web-based tool for skywatchers, science educators, and anyone curious about satellites and space phenomena. This site provides a wealth of real-time and predictive information about what’s happening above us - from satellite flyovers to deep-space missions – all tailored to your location. Users can set their observing location (by city or coordinates) for personalized sky data and even create an optional login to save their preferences. It’s completely free to use (though donations are appreciated to help cover costs). In short, Heavens-Above is a one-stop shop to learn what’s up in the sky at any given moment.

Navigating Heavens-Above: Main Sections

Heavens-Above’s homepage is organized into six main sections:
  • Configuration: Set or change your observing location and access Login (optional) features to save settings. By default, the site starts at 0°N, 0°E, so one of the first things you’ll want to do is set your location for accurate data. 
  • Satellites: Track and predict satellite passes and orbits. This section includes a live sky view, 10-day forecasts for satellites of special interest (ISS, Tiangong, Hubble Space Telescope), daily predictions for brighter satellites, an interactive 3D visualization for the ISS, a dynamic 3D orbit display of Starlink satellites, and more.
  • Deep Space Missions: Follow probes and missions leaving Earth’s vicinity. See the status of Spacecraft escaping the Solar System or watch an animation of the trajectory of SpaceX’s Tesla Roadster from Earth to its own orbit around the Sun.
  • Astronomy: Explore classical astronomy data, including an interactive sky chart, positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, comets, asteroids, constellations, and a dedicated page to learn about upcoming Solar Eclipses (Annular–where the Moon covers the Sun’s center, leaving a ring-like appearance, Partial, Total, and Hybrid).
  • Miscellaneous: Find extras like the Heavens-Above forum on Reddit, time tools (“What time is it?”), a calendar, FAQ, and links to other space and astronomy sites of interest.
  • Statistics: Dive into fun stats about the site’s usage (daily page counts, visits by country, OS, language, etc.). A reminder of the global community of sky enthusiasts using this tool.
​This clear layout makes it easy to jump to whatever interests you. Whether you’re checking tonight’s satellite visibility or planning for a future eclipse.

Tracking Satellites and Space Stations

Heavens-Above specializes in satellite tracking–arguably its biggest draw. Once you’ve configured your location, the site can show you a listing of upcoming passes for visible satellites. It features a searchable database of satellites (past and present) and daily predictions for brighter satellites. You get 10-day forecasts for popular objects like the International Space Station (ISS), the Hubble Space Telescope, and SpaceX’s Starlink satellites. This means you’ll know exactly when and where to look to spot the ISS flying overhead or a chain of newly launched Starlink satellites. Heavens-Above also provides interactive visualizations, including a Live Sky View, Starlink - Dynamic 3D Orbit Display, and ISS Interactive 3D Visualization. These show satellite positions and orbits around Earth in real time. It’s thrilling to watch the ISS circling the globe and realize that it’s right above a specific point on Earth at that particular moment. For each satellite pass prediction, you can click to get a detailed sky chart showing the path of the satellite against the stars for your location and time. In short, Heavens-Above makes satellite spotting easy and fun.

Deep Space Missions and Perspective

Heavens-Above’s Spacecraft escaping the Solar System page offers a unique perspective on humanity’s farthest journeys. There are top-down and side views of the Solar System with plots of the current positions of our first interstellar probes (Pioneers 10 & 11, Voyagers 1 & 2, and New Horizons). The page displays their distances, speeds, and even which constellations they’re headed toward. It’s a powerful reminder of the size of the universe and the great distances between stars. On the diagram’s scale the nearest star would be about 100 meters away and Voyager 1 would take ~70,000 years to reach it. Space is vast and our first emissaries to the stars have just begun their journey into this cosmic ocean. This feature can be awe-inspiring in the classroom or during outreach, helping convey just how far (and how not-far) our probes have gone. 

Solar Eclipses and Other Astronomy Tools

Another highlight of Heavens-Above is its comprehensive Solar Eclipses page. If you’re excited about an upcoming eclipse, this tool is a must-see. The site provides details for every solar eclipse from 1900 to 2100, complete with interactive maps and animations showing the eclipse path and where it will be visible. For any given eclipse (past or future), you can view a world map with the swath of the Moon’s shadow, clearly marking regions of totality, annularity, or partial eclipse visibility. Beyond eclipses, the Astronomy section offers a rich set of observing tools: An interactive sky chart that shows the stars and planets overhead at any time and location, tables for the Sun and Moon (rise/set times, phases), planetary positions, and data on visible comets and asteroids. Information is presented in clear, data-driven charts and maps. Whether you’re identifying two bright “stars” at dusk (perhaps planets!) or checking when astronomical twilight begins, Heavens-Above’s astronomy tools have you covered.

Use Cases: From Classrooms to Community Events

​Perhaps the best part about Heavens-Above is how broadly it can be used. It’s accessible and useful to both beginners and experienced observers. For educators, Heavens-Above offers engaging ways to bring astronomy alive. Teachers can generate sky charts to enhance lessons or have students track the ISS and calculate its orbital period. Information on Solar Eclipses can be used in science classes or public library programs to illustrate why an eclipse might only be partial in one location and total in another. For librarians, astronomers, and program coordinators, this site is a goldmine for planning community events. Imagine hosting an ISS viewing party. Heavens-Above can tell you the exact time the Station will pass overhead and where to look. Planning a Mars opposition observation night or a workshop on satellites? Print out Heavens-Above star charts or satellite pass schedules for your location. Even casual sky observers and curious individuals will find value. You can identify that mysterious bright light you saw moving last night, or simply get a heads-up that SpaceX’s Starlink train will be visible at 6 AM tomorrow. Because the site tailors predictions to your set location, it takes the guesswork out. No more wondering if an online timetable is in UTC or meant for another city. Heavens-Above empowers everyone to engage with the sky in an informed way, turning a casual glance upward into a chance for discovery.

Explore It Yourself

The next time you plan a night under the stars, hear about a satellite launch, or get excited for an eclipse, give Heavens-Above a try. Its robust and user-friendly tools will enrich your understanding of what’s happening in the sky above. Whether you’re an astronomer, a teacher, a librarian, or just someone curious with eyes on the sky, this resource will quickly become an indispensable companion in your cosmic explorations.
Happy Observing!

Picture
​Image generated with ChatGPT. 
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Star Stories & Sky Teachings: Indigenous Constellations Over Turtle Island

16/4/2025

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On Thursday, March 27th, I headed to the Lockhart Planetarium at the University of Manitoba. The event, ‘Storytelling of the Stars’, led by Rockford McKay and Dr. Phil Ferguson, immediately brought to mind Wilfred Buck’s ‘Tipiskawi Kisik: Night Sky Star Stories’, which I read last year.
​The evening was filled with connection and recognition—some stories familiar, some new, and many deepened by hearing them aloud beneath a simulated night sky. Just as I’ve gradually learned the names and positions of many IAU-standardized constellations, I’m now doing the same with Indigenous constellations. Repetition, each retelling, roots the stories deeper within.

Turtle Island & Makinak: A Living Calendar

In many Indigenous traditions, North America is Turtle Island, where the turtle is more than symbolic. The constellation Cepheus represents Makinak—the turtle whose shell is a living calendar: thirteen plates for thirteen full moons, twenty-eight edge divisions for twenty-eight days between moons. Long before our modern calendar, the sky and turtle shell tracked time together. Many will recognize Cepheus as a house due to its brightest stars, but to Indigenous storytellers, Makinak’s shell tells a deeper tale of cosmic rhythm.
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‘Edwin Bighetty. Makinak: Cepheus’ from ‘Tipiskawi Kisik: Night Sky Star Stories’

Atima Atchakosuk: The Dog Stars & Mista Muskwa: The Great Bear

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​‘Edwin Bighetty. Ahtimah Atchakosuk: Polaris & Little Dipper’ from ‘Tipiskawi Kisik: Night Sky Star Stories’
The Big and Little Dippers share a corner of the sky and intertwined stories. At the event, we explored Atima Atchakosuk—the Dog Stars. Long ago, humans had no protectors, vulnerable to nightly dangers. Mikun (Wolf) sent two pups to guard us, and later Mischachakanis (Coyote) and Makisew (Fox) followed, sending more dogs. These dogs became our early warning system. The Little Dipper represents their leash, with Polaris as the tether—forever circling the celestial camp, alert and guarding. 
Picture
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Images from ‘Tipiskawi Kisik: Night Sky Star Stories’
But danger also lurked above. Mista Muskwa—the Great Bear (Big Dipper)—embodies greed and imbalance. The bear demanded constant gifts, becoming violent if refused. Eventually, seven birds--Tepakoop Pinesisuk—were sent to restore harmony. They chased the bear until he fled to the sky, where the chase continues each autumn, the constellation “running" along the horizon. It’s a story of imbalance, of consequences, and of community coming together to restore harmony.
Picture
​‘Edwin Bighetty. Mista Muskwa: Big Dipper’ from ‘Tipiskawi Kisik: Night Sky Star Stories’
These stories weave together, offering layered perspectives. The dogs are our guardians, while the bear reminds us of the dangers of greed—and the power of collective action. The event summarized these narratives; the book deepened them with details.

​Achakos Ininewuk: The Star People

One of the most memorable teachings I heard that night and one that I recall often when looking up at the night sky is that we are Star People. Carl Sagan’s words, “we are made of star-stuff”, echoed in Indigenous wisdom. At creation, Misewa (everything that is) received a spark--Achak—from the Creator, animating all things. Thus, stones (Assiniuk) are alive, animate with spirit. Death becomes transformation, not termination.
Our ancestors arrived via Achakos Iskwew (Star Woman), who descended through a hole in the sky marked by the Pleiades--Pakone Kisik—and chose to come to Aski (Earth). I look up at them now not just as a glittering cluster, but as a portal. A reminder of the indigenous arrival story.
Picture
​‘Edwin Bighetty. Atchakos Ahkoop: Pleiades’ from ‘Tipiskawi Kisik: Night Sky Star Stories’

Kiwtin: The Going Home Star

Polaris—the North Star—is called Kiwtin, the Going Home Star. Fixed in the sky, it guides those lost or returning home. The two bowl stars in the Big Dipper (Great Bear’s hind legs) consistently point toward it, an ancient navigational aid. Kiwtin is a  foundational reference point for navigating the night sky.

Orion & The Sweat Lodge: Matootisan

Orion, known to many as the Hunter, carries another powerful Indigenous story. Orion is Mistapew, a giant spirit-being resembling a Sasquatch or Sa’be, embodying strength and honesty—one of the Seven Sacred Teachings. In ‘Tipiskawi Kisik’, the tale unfolds through Tikoom, whose seven uncles disappeared during a hunting trip, captured by a giant trading in spirits. Their spirits were placed in seven stones, foundational to the first sweat lodge--Matootisan. Each stone holds a sacred teaching, a fragment of spirit, and a tale passed down generations.
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​‘Edwin Bighetty. Mistapew: Orion’ from ‘Tipiskawi Kisik: Night Sky Star Stories’

Guided by the Seven Teachings

Throughout the evening the Seven Sacred Teachings emerged repeatedly:
  • Respect
  • Truth
  • Wisdom
  • Honesty
  • Courage
  • Love
  • Humility
These teachings are reflected in the stories—whether it’s the loyalty of the dogs, the danger of unchecked ego in the bear, or the wisdom of using the stars as a compass.
I had first encountered these teachings while walking the Bimose Kinoomagewnan (Walk of Teachings) trail in Pukaskwa National Park. Seeing them mirrored in the sky makes them feel even more eternal. As above, so below.
Seven Sacred Teachings: Respect, Truth, Wisdom, Honesty, Courage, Love & Humility
​Photos taken by me in July 2022

Final Reflections

​From ‘Storytelling of the Stars’ and revisiting ‘Tipiskawi Kisik’, I’m reminded that astronomy transcends charts and data. It is ancestral, emotional, and spiritual.
​Constellations are not mere configurations of light. They are maps of memory. Guardians of wisdom. Bridges between worlds. 
​And as we lift our eyes to the sky, we are reminded:
​We are not separate from the stars.
​We are made of them.

Sources:
  • Wilfred Buck, ‘Tipiskawi Kisik: Night Sky Star Stories’
  • Rockford McKay & Dr. Phil Ferguson, ‘Storytelling of the Stars’ presentation, Lockhart Planetarium, March 27, 2025.
Note: These stories are shared as I heard, read, and remembered them. Your understanding or stories might differ, or my interpretations might not fully match your own. I welcome corrections, perspectives, or stories via email or comments below.
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Two Suns at Dawn: The Rare Magic of a Partial Solar Eclipse Sunrise

2/4/2025

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This past weekend, something rare and quietly extraordinary unfolded in the skies above northeastern North America: a partial solar eclipse at sunrise — and with it, the eerie illusion of a ‘double sunrise’ or ‘devil’s horns’. 
Picture
​​​​​​​​Generated with DALL·E.
​For those who were in just the right spot — places like eastern Maine, coastal New Brunswick, or the Gaspé Peninsula in Quebec — the Sun didn’t rise as a single glowing disc. Instead, two crescent-shaped horns of sunlight crept above the horizon, side by side, separated by the shadow of the Moon. This fleeting illusion is called a ‘double sunrise’, and it’s the result of a rare alignment where a partial solar eclipse begins (or reaches its peak) at the exact moment the Sun is rising.

So what’s actually happening?

​A partial solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun but doesn’t cover it completely. Instead, it obscures only a portion of the Sun’s face. When this happens at sunrise, the Sun emerges with a large chunk ‘missing’. And in cases like March 29, 2025 — when the Moon covered 80–90% of the Sun in those regions — only the far edges of the Sun remained visible, appearing like two separate horns of light on the horizon. 

Why is it so rare?

Because for this to happen:
  • A partial solar eclipse must occur,
  • It must align precisely with sunrise,
  • And you have to be in a very specific region of the world to witness it.
When all three conditions align, you get a visual phenomenon that feels both celestial and surreal — a kind of cosmic sleight of hand.
Photos shared on social media captured the moment brilliantly. The first image below, taken by Fabrizio Melandri in Monticello, Maine, shows the textbook ‘devil’s horns’ silhouette — sharp, symmetrical, and surreal. The second set of images, taken by Colleen Logan on the Atlantic coast of Canada, shows the Sun’s eerie progression through cloud-fringed treetops.
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​‘Horns of fire’ rising over Maine – captured by Fabrizio Melandri.
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Images captured by Colleen Logan from the Atlantic coast of Canada.
For more about how solar eclipses work — and where this one was visible — check out:
  • NASA’s Eclipse Portal
  • NASA SVS Map of the March 29, 2025 Partial Solar Eclipse
​If you missed it, don’t worry — part of the joy in these events is knowing how rare and serendipitous they are. And when the skies do offer up a gift like this, it reminds us to keep looking up.

Clear skies, friends.

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Echoes of a Dying Star: Exploring a Supernova Through AI and Storytelling

19/2/2025

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I've been playing around with ChatGPT for a while now, experimenting with its ability to generate and refine stories, especially those rooted in science. One of my latest projects was crafting a science fiction short story that balances scientific accuracy with a sense of curiosity and wonder—something in the flavour of Carl Sagan.
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​​​​​​​Generated with DALL·E.

The process? A mix of notes, structured planning, AI-assisted brainstorming, research, and a lot of tweaking:
  • Story Concept & Playtime: I started with a basic idea—a Type Ia supernova unfolding across different cosmic distances—and played around with ChatGPT, bouncing ideas back and forth.
  • Academic Meets Creative: I had ChatGPT analyze and draw from one of my old university astronomy papers to reinforce the scientific foundation of the story.
  • Outlining the Narrative: I structured the story into five chapters, each set at a different vantage point, from the doomed white dwarf, to an autonomous research probe, to a crewed space ship, to the Earth, to the Andromeda Galaxy. One focus was scientific knowledge, but another was evoking that deep sense of cosmic wonder.
  • Experimenting with ChatGPT Models: I tested different inputs, played around with phrasing, and fine-tuned the best output before mixing in my own edits.

Final Touches: Bringing the Story to Life with Video & Music

To enhance the experience, I experimented with Sora to create short videos for each chapter, the title screen, and ending. I compiled these into videos for the story, trying two different approaches:
  1. Text-Based Generation: I copy-pasted the chapter text directly into Sora and went with whatever it generated.
  2. Prompt-Based Generation: I asked ChatGPT o3-mini to come up with suitable Sora prompts—one for each chapter, the title screen, and ending. I then put those prompts into Sora with minimal editing. This worked somewhat better but Sora still had issues generating text correctly.
Both videos turned out alright, but still left much to be desired. Sora has potential, but there’s plenty of room for improvement—at least for us humble ChatGPT Plus users.
On top of that, I wanted an atmospheric soundtrack, so I used ChatGPT to craft a dungeon synth instrumental prompt for Suno. I’ve been really into dungeon synth lately, and this story felt like the perfect inspiration for something melancholic, immersive, and cosmic. 
Suno generated two versions:
  • Luminous Shadows - Version 1
  • Luminous Shadows - Version 2
​After all that experimenting, refining, and assembling, here’s the final outcome: ‘Echoes of a Dying Star’—a story that explores the cosmic scale of a supernova through the perspectives of a doomed autonomous research probe, a distant spaceship, Earth-based observers, and even the Andromeda Galaxy.
Check out the story, and watch the accompanying videos below!

Echoes of a Dying Star

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​Echoes of a Dying Star - Video 1


Echoes of a Dying Star - Video 2


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Embracing the Longest Night: Constellations, Star Clusters, Planets, and Celebrations of the Season

25/12/2024

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As winter blankets the Northern Hemisphere, the night sky unveils a tapestry of celestial wonders that invite us to explore the astronomical phenomena defining this season. From the Winter Solstice to prominent constellations and planets, let's embark on a journey through the cosmos.

The Winter Solstice: An Astronomical Perspective

​The Winter Solstice occurs around December 21st in the Northern Hemisphere and marks the point when the Sun reaches its southernmost position in the sky. This results in the shortest day and the longest night of the year. This event is a consequence of Earth's axial tilt of approximately 23.5 degrees relative to its orbital plane. As Earth orbits the Sun, this tilt causes varying angles of sunlight, leading to the changing seasons. In 2024 in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada the Winter Solstice will occur on Saturday, December 21, 2024 at 3:20 am CST. 
Picture
Image from the article 'The December solstice is here. Here's how it works and why it starts winter and summer at the same time.' on Business Insider. 
Interestingly, during the Northern Hemisphere's winter, Earth is near perihelion—the closest point to the Sun in its elliptical orbit. Despite this proximity, we mostly experience colder temperatures due to the oblique angle of sunlight, which spreads solar energy over a larger surface area. That being said, Earth's orbital speed increases near perihelion, causing us to move faster in our orbit during the winter months and giving those in the Northern Hemisphere a slightly shorter Winter and slightly longer Summer than those who live in the Southern Hemisphere. This increase in orbital speed near perihelion follows Kepler's Second Law of planetary motion, which states that a line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. This means that a planet travels faster in its orbit when it is closer to the Sun (at perihelion) and slower when it is farther from the Sun (at aphelion).
Picture
Image from the article 'The December solstice is here. Here's how it works and why it starts winter and summer at the same time.' on Business Insider. 

Winter Constellations and Asterisms

​Winter nights unveil some of the most recognizable constellations and asterisms:
  • Orion: Dominating the winter sky, Orion is identifiable by the three stars forming his "belt"--Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka. The four main stars outlining Orion's body are Betelgeuse (a red supergiant marking his right shoulder), Bellatrix (his left shoulder and a prominent antagonist in the Harry Potter series), Rigel (his left foot), and Saiph (his right knee). Below the belt lies the Orion Nebula (M42), a stellar nursery visible to the naked eye under dark skies.
Picture
Image from the article 'Orion the Hunter, the most recognizable constellation' on EarthSky. 
  • Taurus: Home to Aldebaran, the bright red eye of the bull, Taurus is a prominent winter constellation that sits along the ecliptic, the apparent path the Sun takes through the sky.
  • Auriga: This pentagon-shaped constellation houses Capella, the sixth-brightest star in the night sky. Auriga is situated near the Milky Way, offering rich star fields for observation.
  • Winter Hexagon: Also known as the Winter Circle, this asterism connects six bright stars--Sirius in Canis Major, Procyon in Canis Minor, Pollux in Gemini, Capella in Auriga, Aldebaran in Taurus, and Rigel in Orion. It serves as a guide to locating several prominent constellations.
Image 1 from the article 'March: The Winter Hexagon' on Sky & Telescope.
​Image 2 from the article 'Explore The Winter Hexagon' on Sky & Telescope. 
  • Winter Triangle: The Winter Triangle is a smaller asterism within the Winter Hexagon. It is formed by connecting three prominent stars: Sirius, Procyon, and Betelgeuse (the bright red star marking Orion's shoulder). This striking triangular pattern lies near the centre of the larger hexagon and is easily recognizable in the winter sky.
Picture
Image from the article 'The Winter Triangle' on AstroBackyard. 

Winter Star Clusters

​Complementing these constellations and asterisms are several notable star clusters that shine brightly during winter nights:
  • Pleiades Star Cluster (Messier 45): Also known as the Seven Sisters, the Pleiades is a group of young, hot blue stars located near Taurus. Best viewed with binoculars, this open star cluster has been observed since ancient times and holds significance in various cultures.​
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Image from ​Davide De Martin & the ESA/ESO/NASA Photoshop FITS Liberator. 
  • Hyades: Found in Taurus and approximately 153 light-years (47 parsecs) from our Sun, the Hyades cluster is the closest open star cluster to Earth. Its distinctive V-shaped formation is anchored by Aldebaran, though the red giant is not actually part of the cluster but lies along the same line of sight.
  • Beehive Cluster (Messier 44): Situated in Cancer, the Beehive Cluster (also known as Praesepe (Latin for "manger", "cot" or "crib"), M44, or NGC 2632) is easily visible to the naked eye under dark skies. It reveals a rich field of stars when viewed through binoculars or a small telescope.
  • Double Cluster (NGC 869 and NGC 884): Located between Perseus and Cassiopeia, the Double Cluster consists of two open clusters that appear as a hazy patch to the naked eye and resolve into a stunning array of stars that is one of my favourite sights through a telescope. 
  • Orion Nebula (Messier 42): Found in the constellation Orion, the Orion Nebula is one of the most famous and brightest emission nebulae visible from Earth. A stellar nursery, it offers a breathtaking view of star formation regions, especially when observed with binoculars or a telescope under dark skies.
Picture
Image from ​NASA, ESA, M. Robberto (Space Telescope Science Institute/ESA) and the Hubble Space Telescope Orion Treasury Project Team. 

​Planetary Highlights

​This winter offers a spectacular lineup of planets gracing the night sky, providing excellent viewing opportunities from southern Manitoba in December 2024:
  • Jupiter: Reaching opposition on December 7, 2024, Jupiter dominates the night sky, shining brighter than all the stars at a magnitude of -2.8. Visible all night and high above the horizon, it can be found near the bright stars Capella, Betelgeuse, and Aldebaran, as well as the Pleiades and Hyades open star clusters. With binoculars or a small telescope, you can observe its four largest moons--Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—orbiting the giant planet.​
Picture
Image from the article 'Earth-observing satellite captures rare photos of Jupiter and its moons' on Space.com. 
  • Venus: Often referred to as the "Evening Star," Venus shines brilliantly in the evening sky after sunset, reaching a dazzling magnitude of -4.4 by the end of the month. In December, Venus will be visible low on the western horizon and ascend higher each evening as it moves through the constellations of Sagittarius, Capricornus, and Aquarius. It will remain a brilliant evening star through March 2025 and will reach its greatest elongation from the Sun in January 2025.
  • Mars: As it approaches opposition in early 2025, Mars becomes increasingly prominent. In December 2024, Mars rises earlier each night, glowing with its characteristic reddish hue in the evening sky. This provides an excellent opportunity to observe its surface features—such as polar ice caps and dark volcanic plains—through a telescope with a sufficiently large aperture.
  • Saturn: Gracing the evening sky, Saturn will be well above the eastern horizon after sunset and set several hours later. Its golden glow is a treat for observers. With a small telescope, you can admire its magnificent ring system and perhaps even glimpse some of its largest moons, like Titan. Saturn will remain visible in the evening sky for the rest of 2024 before disappearing into the sunset glare in February 2025.
Picture
Image from NASA, ESA, A. Simon (Goddard Space Flight Center), and M.H. Wong (University of California, Berkeley). 
  • Mercury: The closest planet to the Sun, Mercury reaches its greatest western elongation of 22 degrees from the Sun at 9 p.m. CST on December 24, 2024. This is an ideal time to spot Mercury in the morning sky before sunrise in the east. Like Venus, Mercury exhibits phases and appears as a crescent when viewed through a telescope, offering a unique sight for early risers. However, when observing Mercury, be cautious of the Sun's proximity. Even brief exposure to direct sunlight through binoculars or a telescope can cause serious eye damage.
​Information in this section from: https://earthsky.org/astronomy-essentials/visible-planets-tonight-mars-jupiter-venus-saturn-mercury/

Cultural Celebrations Around the Winter Solstice

The Winter Solstice has been a time of celebration across various cultures:
  • Hanukkah: Also known as the Festival of Lights, Hanukkah is an eight-day Jewish celebration that usually occurs in December. It commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem and is marked by lighting candles on a menorah each night.
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​Generated with DALL·E.
  • Dongzhi Festival: Celebrated in East Asian cultures, particularly in China, the Dongzhi Festival takes place on the Winter Solstice, marking the arrival of winter and the longest night of the year. Families gather to enjoy hearty meals like dumplings and tangyuan (glutinous rice balls) to promote unity and harmony.
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​Generated with DALL·E.
  • Yalda Night: Celebrated on the Winter Solstice, Yalda Night marks the victory of light over darkness in Iranian culture. Families gather to read poetry and enjoy fruits like pomegranates and watermelons, symbolizing the red hues of dawn and the glow of life.
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​Generated with DALL·E.
  • Krampusnacht: Observed on December 5th in Austria and parts of Central Europe, Krampusnacht or "Krampus Night" features the figure of Krampus—a mythical creature who punishes misbehaving children. The festivities include parades and events where participants dress up as Krampus, adding a blend of folklore and excitement to the winter season.
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​Generated with DALL·E.
  • Christmas: Celebrated on December 25th, Christmas commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ and incorporates various traditions, including feasting, gift-giving, and the decoration of evergreen trees.​​​
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​Generated with DALL·E.
These festivities, rooted in the astronomical significance of the Winter Solstice, highlight humanity's enduring connection to the cosmos.

​As we embrace the winter season, let the night sky inspire wonder and curiosity, reminding us of our place in the vast universe.
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From Sunlit Trails to Midnight Tales: My Spruce Woods Star Party Adventure

2/10/2024

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This past August 30th to September 2nd, I had the incredible opportunity to attend the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada (RASC) Winnipeg branch's Spruce Woods Star Party (SWSP) at Spruce Woods Provincial Park. Nestled in the heart of South Central Manitoba's pristine wilderness, we transformed the Winter Recreation Area into a haven for amateur astronomers and stargazing enthusiasts.
Picture
Commemorative Pin

Friday Night: A Quiet and Rainy Start

​Friday night was overcast with intermittent drizzle and rain showers. I ended up cozying up in my tent for a peaceful night of reading, using the time to relax and finish 'The Rithmatist' by Brandon Sanderson, September's book for my monthly book club. Though I couldn’t view the stars that night, the tranquility of the campground made for a soothing start to the weekend.
SWSP Campground - Friday, August 30th

​Saturday Daytime: Adventures Under the Sun

​With the clouds parting on Saturday, I took full advantage of the sunshine, though I may have overdone it as I earned myself a mild sunburn. I spent the day cycling laps around Kiche Manitou campground, soaking in the lush scenery and fresh air. Later, I ventured onto a segment of the Trans Canada Trail, enjoying the thrill of exploring unfamiliar paths while embracing some of the last days of summer.
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Scenic Lookout - Trans Canada Trail - Saturday, August 31st

​Saturday Night: The Sky Comes Alive

As dusk settled, anticipation grew for the evening’s highlight: Gerry Smerchanski’s renowned Bino Tour. Gerry’s passion is contagious, and his knowledge is vast. He doesn’t just point out celestial objects—he brings them to life. Using binoculars, he guided us on a tour of the night sky, giving us a deeper sense of our universe and our place within it:
  • Stellar Siblings: Gerry pointed out stars with both motion and chemical composition similar to our Sun, suggesting they might have originated from the same stellar nursery. 
  • The Milky Way’s Bar: We traced the dense star clouds toward the galactic center in Sagittarius and Scutum. This helped us visualize the central bar structure of the Milky Way Galaxy, gaining a better understanding of the shape of our galaxy and the location of Earth within it.
  • Distant Galaxies: Although I've seen it before, spotting the Andromeda Galaxy with the naked eye never loses its magic. Knowing that its light has traveled 2.5 million years to reach us is surreal. For most people, the Andromeda Galaxy is the most distant object visible to the naked eye, making it a truly special sight in the night sky. Under exceptional viewing conditions, some observers can glimpse the slightly more distant Triangulum Galaxy (M33).
  • Cosmic Perspectives: Gerry shared insights on the Voyager 1 probe, emphasizing that even at over 62,000 km/h, it would take more than 73,000 years to reach Proxima Centauri if it were headed in that direction—a humbling reminder of the vastness of space.
  • Celestial Wonders: From constellations and nebulae to open clusters, globular clusters, and binary star systems, Gerry took us on a tour across the entire sky.
I occasionally stepped away from the tour to start some astrophotography with my SeeStar S50, capturing objects along the southern horizon before they disappeared. The rest of the night was spent in blissful observation with my constellation binoculars (Orion 2x54 Ultra Wide Angle), Celestron Regal M2 100 ED Spotting Scope, and SeeStar S50. The vibrancy and clarity of the sky was breathtaking—a dark sky site is a must-visit for anyone who wants to reconnect with the universe. It’s a reminder of the skies our ancestors gazed upon before human-caused light pollution began to dim the night.
Preparing For Observing - Saturday, August 31st

​Captured Celestial Objects with the SeeStar S50

Here are the celestial objects I captured with my SeeStar S50 Saturday night (August 31st to September 1st):
  • M17 (Omega Nebula): A bright emission nebula in the constellation Sagittarius, famous for its swan-like appearance.
  • M16 (Eagle Nebula): Home to the iconic "Pillars of Creation," this stellar nursery in the constellation Serpens is an awe-inspiring sight.
  • M24 (Sagittarius Star Cloud): A dense star field in Sagittarius, packed with stars and a rich cosmic view.
  • M57 (Ring Nebula): A planetary nebula in Lyra, easily recognizable by its glowing ring-like structure of gas.
  • NGC 7023 (Iris Nebula): A reflection nebula in Cepheus, resembling a blooming flower.
  • NGC 884 (Double Cluster): One of two open clusters in Perseus, filled with bright young stars. NGC 869, the other cluster, can also be seen in the upper part of the image below.
  • M31 (Andromeda Galaxy): The largest and closest spiral galaxy to our Milky Way. Often called our sister galaxy in the local group.

​Sunday Daytime: Witnessing Solar Spectacles

​Sunday brought a different kind of astronomical delight. Fellow amateur astronomers set up solar telescopes equipped with hydrogen-alpha filters, and I had the chance to view solar prominences and flares in real time (with the Sun's 8-minute, 150-million-kilometer delay, naturally). Observing these fiery phenomena was awe-inspiring, reminding me of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of our closest star. Later in the day, there was a telescope tour, where participants showcased their equipment, sharing stories and setups in a fun show-and-tell.
Solar Viewing With My SeeStar S50
Note: No Hydrogen-Alpha Filter. 
Telescope Tour Photos (AKA Nerdy Awesome Show-And-Tell)
My Gear Setup For The Telescope Tour

​Sunday Night: Peering Deeper Into Space

​For our final night, I continued exploring the heavens with my equipment. The real treat, however, was visiting a neighbouring astronomer who owned a colossal 25-inch Dobsonian telescope—affectionately known as a "light bucket." Climbing a step ladder to reach the eyepiece, I was rewarded with views that took my breath away.
​Using an Oxygen III (OIII) filter, the Veil Nebula in the constellation Cygnus stood out with astonishing detail. This supernova remnant, a cloud of heated and ionized gas and dust, appeared as intricate ethereal lacework against the dark backdrop of space. 

​Captured Celestial Objects with the SeeStar S50

Here are the celestial objects I captured with my SeeStar S50 Sunday night (September 1st to September 2nd):
  • M4 (Globular Cluster): A dense, spherical cluster of stars in the constellation Scorpius, one of the closest globular clusters to Earth.
  • M6 (Butterfly Cluster): An open cluster in Scorpius, known for its shape resembling a butterfly in flight.
  • M22 (Sagittarius Cluster): A bright globular cluster in Sagittarius, rich with stars and easily visible with binoculars.
  • M10 (Globular Cluster): Found in Ophiuchus, this cluster contains hundreds of thousands of stars tightly packed together.
  • M12 (Globular Cluster): Another cluster in Ophiuchus, slightly looser than M10, but no less impressive.
  • M71 (Globular Cluster): A compact globular cluster in the constellation Sagitta, sitting in a rich star field.
  • M27 (Dumbbell Nebula): A planetary nebula in the constellation Vulpecula, resembling a dumbbell shape.
  • NGC 869 (Double Cluster): Part of the famous Double Cluster in Perseus, glowing brightly alongside NGC 884 (seen in the lower part of the image below).
  • M33 (Triangulum Galaxy): A spiral galaxy in the constellation Triangulum, the third-largest member of our local galaxy group.

​Reflecting on the Experience

​Attending the Spruce Woods Star Party was an excellent opportunity to deepen my engagement with astronomy and connect with fellow enthusiasts. Sharing observations and equipment added a collaborative aspect to my stargazing experience. From Gerry's informative Bino Tour to viewing celestial objects through various telescopes, each activity enhanced my understanding and enjoyment of the night sky.
​As I left Spruce Woods Provincial Park, I appreciated both the knowledge gained and the connections made within the astronomy community. I'm already looking forward to next year's event to further explore the cosmos alongside others who share this passion.

Until then, keep looking up!

Picture
RASC SWSP Group Photo - Monday, September 2nd - Photo By Bryan Stach
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From Daylight to Starlight: Capturing Winnipeg's Partial Solar Eclipse and Messier Objects in Ursa Major

11/4/2024

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​On April 8th, 2024, Winnipeg, Manitoba, witnessed a partial solar eclipse with a maximum obscuration of 53.64%. Despite cloudy skies, the event captivated Winnipeggers. As a passionate observer living in Winnipeg, I had the opportunity to witness this phenomenon.

The Unveiling of the Eclipse

​The eclipse began its subtle initiation at 12:54 pm CDT, with the moon starting to cover the sun from a direction of 167° and an altitude of 47.0°. The peak occurred at 2:01 pm CDT at 191° and an altitude of 47.2°. The gradual retreat of the moon’s shadow continued until the partial eclipse ended at 3:08 pm CDT. By then, the alignment shifted to 214° and an altitude of 43.0°.

​A Glimpse Through the Lens

​Armed with my SeeStar S50, I captured key moments of the eclipse. Below are two groups of photographs highlighting the peak and final moments of the eclipse, showcasing the moments when the moon and sun played a fleeting game of tag in the sky.

The Eclipse at Its Peak
​Taken during maximum obscuration.

The Closing Moments
Captured at the end of the eclipse.

Stellar Exploration Before the Eclipse

In anticipation of the eclipse, the evening of April 2nd to the morning of April 3rd was spent in diligent observation and photography of the night sky. With my SeeStar S50, I captured the beauty of four Messier objects, all located in the constellation Ursa Major (aka Big Dipper).



​M81 (Bode's Galaxy)


M81 is a stunning spiral galaxy approximately 12 million light-years away. It is one of the brightest galaxies that can be seen from Earth. M81, along with its neighbour M82, can be found by drawing a line from Phecda to Dubhe, two of the stars in the Big Dipper, and extending it beyond.
Picture



​M82 (Cigar Galaxy)

M82 is a starburst galaxy, meaning it is undergoing an exceptionally high rate of star formation. It is located near M81 and is often observed in conjunction with it (as imaged in this photograph). This galaxy is remarkable for its bright centre and the dark lanes of dust that crisscross its disk.
Picture



​M97 (Owl Nebula)

M97 is a planetary nebula, representing the remains of a dying star that has thrown off its outer layers. It is named the Owl Nebula because of its two dark patches that resemble an owl's eyes. It is located close to Merak, one of the bottom stars of the Big Dipper's bowl.
Picture



​M108 (Surfboard Galaxy)

​This is a barred spiral galaxy that lies close to the Owl Nebula (M97). It is seen edge-on from Earth, giving it a slender, elongated appearance that has led to its nickname, the Surfboard Galaxy.
Picture

The Night Before: Capturing the Pinwheel Galaxy

​Motivated by my earlier observations, I set out to capture a great image of M101 (another Messier object in Ursa Major) on April 7th, the night before the eclipse.


​M101 (Pinwheel Galaxy)

The Pinwheel Galaxy is a face-on spiral galaxy, which means we are looking at it from above its pole, allowing us to see its spiral arms in all their glory. It is located in the outer region of the Big Dipper's handle. Finding M101 can be a bit challenging due to its low surface brightness, but it is a rewarding sight in stacked photographs and larger telescopes.
Picture

Picture
Location of observed Messier objects in Ursa Major. 

A Cosmic Journey

The partial solar eclipse of 2024 provided a unique opportunity for celestial observation and photography. Coupled with the preceding nights spent capturing the beauty of distant galaxies and nebulae, it was an unforgettable experience that underscored the wonders of our universe. For more details and insights into the equipment used during these observations, visit the 'My Gear' page under the 'Astronomy' section of my website, recently completed to share information about my gear and what qualities I value most with fellow astronomy enthusiasts.

Maximum obscuration, times, direction, and altitude data from Time and Date. 
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